Despite the significant investment of attention and resources, the Pentagon and armed services continue to struggle to find, train, and retain the cyber personnel needed for great power competition. The 2025 National Defense Authorization Act directs an evaluation of alternative organizational models for U.S. cyber forces. Traditional models for military force generation, including special operations, have received significant attention. However, Congress also requires an assessment of alternative organizational models that could prove to be more effective. This article seeks to do so, challenging common assumptions about which organizational models are most relevant and instructive. In particular, we explore alternative models for cyber force generation that include the Uniformed Health Services, Defense Combat Support Agencies, Department of Defense specialized career paths, and private-sector workforce development. We assess each alternative in terms of its applicability, limitations, lessons for force generation, and potential to inform the dominant models in the current debate—namely the status quo, a special operations (SOCOM) model, or a separate cyber force.
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